A

• acid rain, 9, 69, 70, 102, 122, 146
• action plans. see air pollution; soil pollution; water pollution
• AECOM, 46
• age-based differences in health effects, 116–117
• agriculture. see farming and farmland
• Aha Reservoir, 178
• air filters and purifiers, 66, 105, 113, 126, 146–147
• air pollution, 59–73;
  • action plan, 165–171, 215
  • anti-pollution campaigns, 61
  • auto emissions and, 6, 24, 39, 49, 60, 69–71, 169
  • citizens’ right to know about, 140
  • climate change and, 71–73
  • coal-burning as source of, 6, 20, 34, 35, 60, 67, 111–112
  • comparison with other countries, 59–60, 228n1
  • construction as source of, 60–62
  • cooking as source of, 61, 106
  • enforcement of laws, 179–180
  • extent of, 5–7, 6
  • face masks, use of, 146,
  • health effects of, 7, 35, 61, 105, 233n7
  • indoor air quality, 105–106
  • international travel to Seek relief from, 147–148
  • major pollutants, 60–61
  • as priority, in public concerns, 144
  • public awareness of, 153
  • soil pollution from, 95–96
  • unsafe air quality, 110–112
  • urbanization and, 39, 115, 218
  • US corporations paying hazard pay to employees to work in China due to, 7, 127
• Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, 167–168
• Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2016), 168
• Air Quality Index (AQI) monitoring, 139, 147, 148
• “airpocalypse” (first episode 2013), 64, 65–66, 147, 151–152, 167
• Alen Corporation, 126
• algal blooms, 54, 77, 120, 122, 153, 179
• All-China Environment Federation (GONGO), 159
• alternative energy. see clean energy
• American Chamber of Commerce in China, 66
• aniline, 36, 123
• animal feeding operations, 78
• Apple, 32, 33, 119–121, 128
• apps
  • on air quality, 64, 112–113, 139, 147
  • on environmental topics, 137–138, 139
• Arab Spring uprising (2011), 102
• arable land. see farming and farmland
• Arch Coal, Inc., 4, 125
• Argentina, 4, 54, 209
• Armani, 45, 120
• arsenic, 9, 95, 106–107, 179
• artificial weather program, 174
• Asian Development Bank on crop failure due to climate change, 232–233n19
• Audi, 32, 51
• automobiles
  • air-filtration systems in, 113
  • China as largest car market in world, 24, 44, 49, 51, 70, 213
  • consumerism and, 49–52
  • driving-days limits, 170
  • emissions as source of pollution, 6, 24, 39, 49, 60, 69–71, 169
  • fuel efficiency standards, 170
  • high-polluting vehicles (yellow label), ban on, 169
  • license issuance, limitation on, 71, 169–170
  • lowering sulfur content in fuel, 170
  • measures to discourage driving, 170
  • measures to limit emissions from, 71
  • road congestion, 23, 51, , 70, 170

B

• Baihua Lake, 178
• Beijing
  • air pollution in, 6–7, 61, 65, 69, 111, 168, 233n7
  • auto licenses, limitation on, 170
  • Environmental Protection Bureau, 64
  • landfills in, 47
  • Olympics (Summer 2008), 22
  • Olympics (Winter 2022), 126
  • solid waste in, 39
  • Sports Car Club of Beijing, 51
  • subsidence in, 86
  • subway system in, 171
  • Tianjin to Beijing canal, proposed construction of, 84
  • water shortage in, 8, 81, 172
• Beijing Besieged by Waste (film), 226n13
• Beijing Capital International Airport, 22
• Beijing News, 69–70
• Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei area (Jingjinji), 168
• @Beijingair (US Embassy twitter feed), 63–64, 140
• benzene, 36, 123, 142
• Berkeley Earth on China’s mortality rate due to air pollution, 111
• bicycle use, 23, 44, 49, 50, 213
• biodiversity
  • expanding human settlement endangering, 17–18
  • fish types in Yangtze River, extinction of, 81
  • water pollution endangering, 123
• biomass power, 199
• Bird’s Nest stadium, 22
• Bloomberg
  • on Beijing air pollution, 65
  • on desalination, 173
• Book of Poetry (first millennium bce), 15–16
• Bosch, 32, 33, 119
• bottled water, 113–114, 147;
  • consumption compared to other countries, 114
• Brazil, 4, 54, 103, 197
• Brown, Lester: Who Will Feed China?, 100, 101
• Buddhism, 26–27, 217

C

• cadmium, 5, 9, 11, 12, 95–96, 107, 110, 112, 138, 151, 175
• Caixin (media group), 137–138
• cancer. see health effects
• cap-and-trade program. see carbon emissions trading system
• carbon capture and storage (CCS) to produce cleaner energy from coal, 190–193
• carbon dioxide emissions, 34, 35, 49, 60, 69.; see also greenhouse gas emissions
  • automobiles as source of, 70
  • climate change and, 72
  • comparison with other countries, 70
  • food crops, effect on, 96
  • levels peaking by 2030, 169
• carbon emissions trading system, 166, 169, 177, 215
• carbon monoxide emissions
  • air pollution and, 60
  • comparison with other countries, 68
  • cross-border pollution and, 123
  • manufacturing sector and, 34
• carbon sinks, reduction of, 54
• cars. see automobiles
• CCS (carbon capture and storage) to produce cleaner energy from coal, 190–193
• CCTV (China Central Television), 107, 137
• censorship, 137
• Center for Legal Assistance to Pollution Victims (NGO), 159, 160
• “Century of Humiliation,” 20–24
• Chai Jing, 144–145
• Chang Cheng, 143
• Changzhi, water pollution in, 78
• Changzhou, 107
• ChemChina, 103
• Chen Guangbiao, 150–151
• Chen Jining, 241n12, 242n23
• Chen Tongbin, 10
• Chengdu
  • air pollution in, 69
  • street protest in, 154
• child development, pollution effects on, 116–117
• China, map of, ;
  • cancer villages,
  • nuclear power plant sites,
  • polluting factories and emission levels,
  • water resources, ,
• China Association of Automobile Manufacturers, 171
• China Daily
  • on biomass power, 199
  • on river pollution, 142
  • on soil contamination, 95
  • as source of environmental news, 137
• China Earthquake Administration
  • Institute of Geology on magnitude of earthquakes in China, 210
  • study on seismic activity in Three Gorges area (2010), 204–205
• China Environmental Press Awards, 142
• China Environmental Protection Foundation (GONGO), 159
• China Export-Import Bank, 133
• China Nuclear Energy Association, 207
• China Renewable Energy Industries Association, 144
• China Statistical Yearbooks Database, 138
• China Water Risk, 85, 114
• China Youth Daily, 137
• Chinese Academy of Science, 209;
  • Research Center for Eco-environmental Sciences, 62
• Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, 10, 37
• Chinese Communist Party
  • Central Committee, 214–215
  • civil war with Nationalist Party, 21
  • ecological civilization and quality of life campaign, 216
  • economic development and, 39–40, 42, 213–214
  • hydroelectricity and, 197
  • NGOs and, 161
  • organic foods and, 99
• Chinese Ski Association, 46
• Chongqing, 142
• Chongqing Green Volunteer League, 159, 160, 240n37
• chromium, 95, 110.; see also heavy metals
• Chu, Steven, 127
• cities. see urbanization
• civil society. see nongovernmental organizations
• civil war between Chinese Communist Party and Nationalist Party, 21
• clean energy, 4–5, 68, 72, 121, 127, 132, 144, 166, 168–169, 189–211; see also nuclear energy
  • carbon capture and storage (CCS) to produce cleaner energy from coal, 190–193
  • comparison with other countries, 243n5
  • “green dispatch” system, 201
  • hydroelectric facilities, problems associated with buildout of, 202–206
  • increase in use of, 190, 195, 215
  • investment in, compared to other countries, 195, 215
  • limitations on use of, 199–201
  • reliability of, 201
  • shale as alternative to coal, 193–194
  • share in energy mix, 194–199, 215
• climate change
  • air pollution and, 71–73
  • crop failure due to, 232–233n19
  • facing challenge of, 219–220
  • fracking and, 194
  • hydropower and, 205
  • livestock emission of methane and nitrous oxide contributing to, 54
  • schistosomiasis and, 80
  • water scarcity and, 83, 88
• cloud Seeding to produce rain, 174
• coal
  • air pollution attributed to, 6, 20, 34, 35, 60, 67, 111–112
  • cap on consumption of, 166, 215
  • comparison with other countries, 67, 67
  • consumption trends, 67, 189–190
  • gasification of, 191–193
  • importing into China, 125, 131–132, 193
  • indoor air pollution attributed to, 106
  • industrialization and, 34, 67–69
  • international construction of coal-fired power plants by China, 133
  • lessening dependence on, 4, 68, 132, 168–169, 189–190, 195, 220
  • new coal-fired power plants, limitations on, 215
  • population growth and, 20
  • US coal companies hoping to expand sales to China, 125
  • water required for coal industry, 81–82
• Coastal City Flood Vulnerability Index, 220
• Coca-Cola, 7, 127, 128
• community participation in environmental assessments, 149–150, 164, 185–186
• community-supported agriculture (CSA), 100, 147
• Confucianism, 26–29, 217
• Confucius, 27–28
• construction. see also urbanization
  • decreasing arable land and threatening food security, 47
  • new construction, limitations on, 187
  • worksites as source of air pollution, 60–62
• consumerism, 43–55; see also middle class, growth of
  • automobiles and, 49–52
  • economic development based on, 32, 41
  • environmental consequences of, 47–49, 218
  • food-consumption patterns and, 52–55, 53
  • ideological void filled by, 44
  • leisure time and, 45–47
  • middle class and, 43–45
  • traits of, 43–45
• cooking as source of air pollution, 61, 106
• corruption
  • anti-corruption campaign, 46, 216
  • in Manchu Qing dynasty, 21
  • as priority, in public concerns, 144
• CSA (community-supported agriculture), 100, 147
• Ctrip (online travel agent), 148
• Custer, Charles, 141

D

• Dalian
  • oil spill (2010), 78
  • protest against PX plant in, 154, 155, 157
• dams and reservoirs, 23, 88, 202–205, 244n17; see also hydropower
• Danjiangkou Reservoir, 76, 89, 91
• danwei units, 50
• Daoguang emperor (r. 1820–1850), 21
• Daoism, 26–27, 217
• dead zones, 54, 122, 153
• deforestation, 15–19, 25, 39, 53, 146, 221
• Deng Fei, 141–143
• Deng Xiaoping, 31, 43, 49, 50, 213
• desalination, 173–174
• desertification, 20, 83, 94, 146
• Deutsche Bank, 173
• diesel fuel, 60, 71, 120
• Disney, 46
• Dong Zhengwei, 149
• Dong Zhongshu, 28
• Dongting Lake, 202
• drinking water. see water pollution; water scarcity
• droughts, 83, 102, 205, 244n17; see also water scarcity
• Duke University study
  • on air pollution (2016), 112
  • “China’s Synthetic Natural Gas Revolution,” 192–193
• Dunne, Michael, 51

E

• e-waste, 10–12, 47, 112
• earthquakes, 204–205, 210
• East China Sea, 121, 123, 202
• ecological civilization, promotion of, 40–41, 215–217, 221
• economic development, 31–42;
  • cost of environmental pollution to, 36–37, 165, 181, 214
  • environmental consequences of, 34–37
  • environmental protection coexisting with, 39–42
  • factors contributing to, 31–33
  • GDP comparison with other countries, 31, 225n1
  • GDP growth, 213
  • high-tech products and services, 35, 41
  • international trade, expansion of, 33
  • manufacturing sector, development of, 33–34
  • public opinion on priority of economy vs. environment, 144
  • urbanization and, 37–39
  • wealth of people and, 43
• electric vehicles, 71, 170–171
• electronic waste, 10–12, 47, 112
• elephants, decimation of, 48
• Elvin, Mark, 15
• energy. see also specific types of energy
  • capping annual total consumption, 176
  • consumer products and, 47
  • economic development and, 33–34
  • population growth and, 20
  • reducing intensity levels, 176
• environment and environmental challenges, 213–221; see also climate change
  • addressing problems, 213–215
  • ecological civilization, promotion of, 40–41, 215–217
  • historical background of, 15–19
  • learning about China’s pollution problems, 12–13
  • overview of China’s pollution problems, 5
  • vertical management system to govern, 183
  • why China’s environment is important, 3–5, 220–221
• environmental cooperation among neighboring countries, 124–125
• environmental impact assessment, 149, 150, 157, 186, 242n15
• Environmental Impact Assessment Law (2003), 150, 154, 167
• environmental laws, 32, 166;
  • environmental courts, 178–179, 182
  • lax enforcement of, 128, 130, 164, 179–180, 242n23
• environmental NGOs. see nongovernmental organizations
• Environmental Protection Bureaus, 64, 178, 187, 242n15
• Environmental Protection Law (1979), 166, 167, 179, 184
• Environmental Protection Law (2015), 168, 184–188
• environmental protests, 142–143, 152–158, ;
  • effectiveness of, 157–158
  • frequency of, 40, 152–155, 214
  • nuclear reactor construction, opposition to, 211
  • targets of, 155–157
• exports. see trade
• extreme weather, 219, 220

F

• face masks, use of, 146,
• factories. see manufacturing sector
• falsification of data by local officials, 12–13
• farming and farmland. see also fertilizers; irrigation; pesticides; soil pollution
  • arable land, loss of, 10, 18, 24, 38, 47, 93, 101–102, 138
  • cleanup of polluted farmland, 175
  • community-supported agriculture (CSA), 100, 147
  • comparison of arable land to other countries, 93
  • contamination of, 9–10, 138, 187
  • dams and reservoirs submerging, 203
  • decollectivizing, 31–32
  • deforestation to create farmland, 15–19
  • Great Leap Forward’s effect on, 24–25, 101
  • historical background of, 15–17
  • land scarcity and, 54
  • livestock and, 53–54, 77–78, 102
  • organic farming, 98–100, 147
  • overcultivation, 19
  • overseas purchase of farmland by China, 103
  • population growth and, 19
  • runoff as cause of water pollution, 19, 76–78, 94, 122
  • urbanization’s effect on, 38
  • water pollution’s effect on, 80
  • water use required for, 54, 81
• FDI (foreign direct investment), 32–33, 225n2
• fertilizers, 9, 19, 76, 77, 94, 96–98, 107, 110, 187
• Finamore, Barbara, 120
• Financial Times
  • on Deng Fei’s call for river pollution photos, 142
  • on travel for relief from air pollution, 152
• fines and punishments for environmental violations, 182, 183–185, 187, 241–242n15, 242n23
• fireworks, prohibition of, 61
• fish
  • dam construction’s effect on, 202
  • overfishing, 202
  • pollution’s effect on, 80–81, 121
• Five-Year Plan, 12th (2011–2015), 127
• Five-Year Plan, 13th (2016–2020), 127, 168, 176–177, 195, 207
• flooding, 17, 23, 88
• fluorine, 106
• “Flying Pigeons” (bicycles), 23, 44, 49, 50, 213
• Food Safety Law (2009), 110
• food supply, 4, 10, 100–103; see also meat consumption
  • comparison with other countries, 98
  • famine as result of Great Leap Forward, 25, 101
  • fertilizer use and, 97; see also fertilizers
  • food-consumption patterns and, 52–55, 53
  • food safety, importance of, 98–99, 109–110, 147
  • grain sufficiency, 100–102
  • malnutrition and, 103
  • organic food and, 98–100, 114, 147
  • pesticides, effect of, 94
  • soil pollution, effect of, 95
  • urbanization, effect of, 38
  • water pollution, effect of, 80, 108
• Forbes on pollution in China due to manufacturing goods to sell in United States (2014), 129
• Forbidden City, 18–19
• Ford, 119, 128
• foreign direct investment (FDI), 32–33, 225n2
• forests. see deforestation; reforestation
• fossil fuels, 20, 33, 47, 193, 194; see also coal; diesel fuel
  • air pollution from combustion of, 95, 122; see also air pollution
  • alternatives to. see clean energy; hydropower; nuclear energy
  • carbon capture and storage (CCS) and. see carbon capture and storage (CCS) to produce cleaner energy from coal
  • in consumption mix, largest percent from, 194
  • domestic and international travel use of, 49
  • economic growth’s reliance on, 20, 33, 35, 47
  • global warming and, 72
  • “green dispatch” system and, 201
  • lessening dependence on, 4, 68, 125, 132, 133, 168–169, 189–190, 194–195, 220
  • natural gas, 193
  • population growth and, 20
  • reducing vehicle emissions from, 70–71, 169–170
  • travel’s effect on use of, 49
• fracking, 193–194
• Friends of Nature (NGO), 139, 140, 158, 159, 167
• Fujian province, 126, 142;
  • landslide (2016), 205
• Fukushima disaster (2011), 207, 210

G

• Gallup poll on priority of economy vs. environment (2011), 144
• Gansu Wind Farm, 196
• GDP. see economic development
• GE, 32, 119
• Geely (Volvo’s parent company), 113
• geopolitics, 205–206
• glacier melt, 83, 90–91, 198, 205, 219–220
• Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, 111
• Global Times, 137
• Global Village of Beijing (NGO), 139, 159
• global warming. see climate change; greenhouse gas emissions
• globalization
  • benefits of global trade, 120–121, 235n3
  • contributing to China’s economy, 32–33, 119
  • contributing to China’s pollution, 119–121
  • neighboring countries affected by China’s pollution, 121–125
  • United States, China’s pollution’s effect on, 3, 125–127
  • United States’ role in China’s pollution, 128–131
• GM, 32, 33, 50, 51
• Gobi Desert, 19, 195–196
• Goldwind Science and Technology, 199
• golfing, 45–46, 48
• GONGOs, 159
• government. see state response to pollution
• government-organized nongovernmental organizations (GONGOs), 159
• Grand Coulee Dam, 198
• Great Britain. see United Kingdom
• Great Green Wall of China, 19, 83
• Great Leap Forward, 24–25, 101
• Great Wall of China, 18
• Green, Fergus, 68
• Green Anhui (NGO), 160
• Green Beagle (NGO), 140, 159
• Green Camel Bell (NGO), 159
• “green dispatch” system, 201
• Green Earth Volunteers (NGO), 159
• green finance system, 177
• Green Han River (NGO), 159
• Green Horizon initiative, 126
• Green Hunan (NGO), 140
• green technology, promotion of, 4–5, 127, 144
• Green Volunteer League of Chongqing (NGO), 159
• Green Watershed (NGO), 159
• greenhouse gas emissions. see also carbon dioxide emissions; methane
  • China as leading contributor to, 189
  • climate change and, 72
  • livestock and, 54–55
  • manufacturing sector and, 128
  • reservoirs and, 203–204
• Greenpeace
  • air pollution studies, 61, 63, 111, 121
  • East Asia study (2016), 5
  • on environmental protests, 143
  • on MNCs’ role, 235n3
  • role in China, 163
• Guangxi province, 18
• Guangzhou
  • auto licenses, limitation on, 170
  • cadmium levels in, 95, 112
  • car licenses, limitation on, 170
  • Food and Drug Administration, 138
• Guiyu, e-waste recycling in, 11, 47, 112
• Guizhou province, 106, 178

H

• Hai River, 83, 87
• Hainan province, 106
• Han Changfu, 101
• Hangzhou, air pollution in, 61, 69
• Harbin
  • air pollution in, 111
  • industrial accident causing water pollution in (2005), 36
• He Dongxian, 112
• He Zuoxiu, 209–210
• health effects, 105–117, 165; see also mortality rates
  • access to health care, 115
  • actions people can take to counter, 112–115
  • age-based differences in effects, 116–117
  • of air pollution, 7, 35, 61, 105, 233n7
  • cancer villages, 107–109, 115, 160
  • of coal combustion, 67, 67
  • of food shortage, 103
  • notable health-related findings, 110–112
  • of particulate matter, 62–63, 105, 111
  • poor vs. wealthy and, 116
  • population growth and, 19
  • of recycling e-waste, 11–12
  • in rural vs. urban areas, 115–116
  • of soil pollution, 107
  • variation among different populations, 115–117
  • of water pollution, 36, 79–80, 91, 106–107
• heavy metals
  • cross-border pollution and, 123
  • deactivation of, 175
  • food supply and, 110
  • from recycling e-waste, 11–12
  • rural population and, 115
  • soil pollution and, 93, 95, 102, 107, 138
  • water pollution and, 113
• Hebei province, 41, 83, 85, 90, 181
• high-speed rail lines, construction of, 177
• high-tech products and services, economic shift to, 35, 41
• highway system, 52
• Himalayas, 83, 89, 220
• historical background, 15–29;
  • “Century of Humiliation,” 20–24
  • of environmental challenges, 15–19
  • Mao Zedong’s “Man Must Conquer Nature,” 24–26, 28
  • of population growth, 19–20
• HKTDC survey (2013), 44–45, 46
• Hong Kong, 21
• Hongfeng Lake, 178
• Hoover Dam, 198
• housing, 44, 47–48; see also urbanization
• Hu Jintao, 40
• Hu Kanping, 80
• Hu Shuli, 137
• Huai River
  • cancer villages near, 107
  • drought and, 83
• Huai River Guardians (NGO), 159, 160
• hukou system to limit rural to urban migration, 115–116
• humor as public response to pollution, 150–152,
• Hunan province, 95
• Hurun Reports survey on Chinese immigration (2014), 114
• hybrid vehicles, 71, 170
• hydrocarbons from vehicle emissions, 60
• hydrofracturing (fracking), 193–194
• hydropower, 23, 190, 195, 197, 202–206; see also clean energy
• hyperurbanization policy, 37, 41, 218

I

• IBM, 32, 33, 119, 126
• imports
  • coal as, 125, 131–132, 193
  • food products as, 54, 84, 102
  • timber as, 221
• India’s air pollution compared to China’s, 59–60, 228n1
• Indonesia
  • coal imported from, 132
  • timber imported from, 221
• industrial accidents causing pollution, 36, 78–79, 95, 123
• industrial recycling, 88
• industrialization. see manufacturing sector
  • cleanup of industrial sites, 175
  • coal and, 34, 67–69, 119
  • economic growth and, 32
  • local importance of, 181
  • soil pollution and, 94–95, 102
  • water pollution and, 36, 76, , 87–88, 94–95, 108–109, 119, 172
  • water scarcity and, 88
• Inner Mongolia province, 131
• Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 37, 111
• Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs (NGO), 139, 149, 160–161, , 165, 186, 235n3
• International Agency for Research on Cancer, 111
• international relations, 205–206, 220–221
• International Rivers Organization, 163
• investment
  • foreign direct investment (FDI), 32–33, 225n2
  • green finance system, 177
  • recommendation to increase in environmental protection, 183
• iron (as pollutant), 96, 110; see also heavy metals
• iron and steel production, 25, 132, 156, 181
• irrigation, 9, 80, 84, 94
• island construction in South China Sea. see South China Sea
• ivory, 48

J

• Jahiel, Abigail, 180, 241–242n15
• Japan
  • Chinese wars with (1894–1895, 1937–1945), 21
  • environmental cooperation with neighboring countries, 124–125
  • GDP in, 225n1
  • Ministry of Environment, 122, 124
  • nuclear energy in, 207
  • pollution from China in, 121–122
  • renewable energy, investment in, 195
  • Senkaku/Diaoyutai Islands, dispute with China over, 123
• Jiang Zemin, 26
• Jiaotong University survey on public environmental awareness (2014), 144
• Jiaozhou Bay oil spill (2013), 79
• Jilin chemical factory explosion (2005), 36, 123
• Jing-A Brewery, 151
• Jinsha River, 205
• Johnson & Johnson, 32

K

• Kashgar, as worst air pollution in China, 6
• Korea, China losing to Japan, 21

L

• labor laws, 32
• Lake Tai, 77, 179
• Lancang River, 205, 206, 221
• Lancet studies
  • on air filters’ effectiveness, 147
  • on food processing and production, 110
• land scarcity, arable land and. see farming and farmland
• landfills, 39, 47, 116
• landslides, 205
• Lanzhou Petrochemical oil spill (2014), 79
• lead. see also heavy metals
  • from recycling e-waste, 11, 112
  • soil pollution and, 95
• Li Ganjie, 157, 241n12
• Li Keqiang, 35, 37, 41, 165, 167
• Liang Congjie, 158
• Liang Kegang, 151
• Liang Qichao, 158
• Liang Sicheng, 158
• Linyi factory shut-down (2015), 41, 181
• livestock. see farming and farmland
• local officials
  • accountability of, 186–188
  • falsification of data by, 12–13
  • increase in their responsiveness to Ministry of Environmental Protection, 182–183
  • punishment for unlawful environment-related acts, 187
  • supervision by higher government levels, 187
• local vs. national interests, 180–181
• locusts, 25
• Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, 196,
• Ludian earthquake (2014), 204
• luxury brands, 44–45, 51

M

• Ma Jun, 153, 158, 160–161, 186, 242n23
• Ma Tianjie, 150, 179–180
• Madagascar rosewood, 48
• malaria, 106
• Malaysia
  • South China Sea, dispute with China over, 123
  • timber imported from, 221
• malnutrition, 103
• Manchu Qing dynasty, 20–21
• manufacturing sector. see also industrialization
  • China as world’s largest, 34
  • development of, 33–34
  • location of polluting factories and their emission levels, 161–163,
  • outsourcing to China, 119–120, 220
  • responsibility for pollution, 3, 108–109, 119, 218
• Mao Zedong, 24–26, 28, 31, 50, 89, 96
• Marco Polo, 20
• Max Planck Institute, 111
• McKinsey report on China’s middle class (2013), 43, 44, 219
• meat consumption, 52–55, 53 , 228n21
• megaprojects, 22–23
• Mekong River Commission (MRC), 244n18
• Mencius, 16–17, 27–28
• MEP. see Ministry of Environmental Protection
• mercury, 3, 5, 9, 20, 102, 106–107, 122, 191, 220;
  • air from China carrying to Japan, 121
  • air pollution and, 60, 95–96
  • manufacturing sector and, 34
  • soil pollution and, 95–96
  • US mercury deposition from Asia, 125
• methane, 194, 203; see also greenhouse gas emissions
• Microsoft Corporation, 126
• middle class, growth of, 43–45, 153–154, 218–219
• migration caused by environmental factors, 83, 91, 114–115;
  • hukou system and, 115–116
  • international travel to Seek relief, 147–148
  • resettlement due to dam construction, 203
• Ming dynasty (1368–1644), 17
• Ministry of Agriculture, 178, 180, 182
• Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP)
  • on air pollution, 6
  • cabinet-level status of, 167, 177
  • on environmental disasters, 107
  • failure to properly fund and staff, 130, 145, 180
  • “Measures on Open Environmental Information,” 138, 148–149
  • “Measures on Public Participation in Environmental Protection,” 157
  • NGOs and, 164
  • “Report on the State of the Environment,” 138
  • restructuring state ministries into a super-Ministry, 182
  • role of, 177–178
  • on soil contamination, 9–10
  • structure of, 178
  • transparency assurances from, 148
  • on water pollution, 8, 76
  • weak authority of, 180
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 64, 140
• Ministry of Health, 178
• Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, 178
• Ministry of Land and Resources, 9–10, 93, 178
• Ministry of Public Security, 163
• Ministry of Transport, 71, 171, 178
• Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction, 167
• Ministry of Water Resources, 87, 178, 180, 182
• MNCs (multinational corporations), 32, 33, 119–120, 129, 235n3
• modernization under Mao Zedong, 24–26
• monitoring
  • of air quality, 139, 141, 147, 148, 165
  • need for reliable data from, 12–13
  • of soil quality, 175
  • of water quality (five grades), 75, 214–215
• mortality rates
  • air pollution linked to, 7, 35, 61, 111, 213
  • child mortality, 117
  • water pollution linked to, 79
• Motivaction (research agency), 144
• motor vehicles. see automobiles
• mountains, bulldozing of, 38–39
• MRC (Mekong River Commission), 244n18
• Muller, Richard, 233n7
• multinational corporations (MNCs), 32, 33, 119–120, 129, 235n3
• Myanmar
  • timber imported from, 221
  • water pollution from China in, 221

N

• Nanfang Media Group, 137
• Nanjing Massacre, 21
• NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 125
• National Development and Reform Commission, 178, 180, 184
• National Energy Administration, 199
• National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), 166–167, 177
• National People’s Congress Standing Committee, 184
• nationalism, 216
• Nationalist Party (China), 21
• Natural Resources Defense Council, 34, 163
• Nature Conservancy, 163
• NEPA (National Environmental Protection Agency), 166–167, 177
• New York Times on China’s construction of coal-fired power plants abroad, 133
• news media as source of environmental information, 137–138
• Nike, 120, 128
• NIMBY (not in my backyard) protests, 156
• nitrobenzene, 36, 123
• nitrogen dioxide, 60, 123, 139
• nitrogen oxides
  • acid rain containing, 122, 191
  • manufacturing sector and, 34, 128
  • vehicle emissions and, 60, 69–70
• non-fossil fuels. see clean energy
• nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 139, 158–164;
  • activities of, 160–163
  • cancer villages and, 109
  • government’s toleration of, 163–164
  • historical background of, 158–159
  • registration and inspection of, 163
• Nu River, 205, 206, 221
• nuclear energy. see also clean energy
  • comparison with other countries, 207–209
  • floating plants, 209
  • Fukushima disaster (2011), 207, 210
  • public reaction to China’s plan to promote, 209–211
  • reactors in China, existing and planned, 176, 207–209,
  • reactors outside of China, construction with China’s assistance, 209
  • share of energy mix, 190, 195

O

• official environmental information, 138
• oil refineries and water pollution, 172
• Olympics
  • Beijing (Summer 2008), 22
  • Beijing (Winter 2022), 126
• open-air grilling, prohibition of, 61, 62
• Opium War (1839–1842), 21
• organic farming and food, 98–100, 110, 147;
  • consumption of organic foods, comparison with other countries, 114
• outsourcing
  • of deforestation, 221
  • of manufacturing to China, 119–120, 220
• overgrazing, 19
• ozone, 60, 128

P

• Pakistan
  • air pollution compared to China, 59
  • nuclear reactor construction, Chinese assistance in, 209
• Pan Shiyi, 64, 141
• Pan Yue, 217
• Panasonic, 7
• parasites, 80
• Paris Agreement (2015), 72–73
• particulate matter (PM)
  • air filtration systems and, 105, 113, 146–147
  • air pollution and, 5–7, 34, 59, 60, 65–66, 228n1
  • Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (2013) and, 167–168
  • automobile emissions and, 49, 60, 69–70, 113, 169
  • business opportunities and, 126
  • coal combustion as source of, 67, 72, 132
  • comparison with other countries, 59–60
  • construction sites and, 60
  • dark humor as public response to, 151–152,
  • description of PM2.5, 61–63
  • distinguishing sources of, 69
  • fossil fuel use, in general, contributing to, 72
  • health effects of, 62–63, 105, 111, 116
  • household term in China, PM2.5 as, 63–64
  • manufacturing sector and, 34
  • monitoring via mobile apps, 139
  • pollution, 150–152,
  • public awareness of PM2.5 levels, 140–141, 148, 153
  • smog and, 71, 146
  • “smog refugees” and, 147–148
  • transboundary spread of, 3, 121, 124, 125, 128, 220
  • travel’s contribution to, 49
• Peabody Energy Corp., 4, 125
• Pearl River, 172
• Pearl River Delta, 168
• penalties. see fines and punishments
• People’s Daily, 137, 144–145
• pesticides, 19, 77, 94, 107, 110, 172, 187
• PEW
  • poll on top concerns of Chinese people, 98, 109, 144
  • research on average income in China, 43
• Philippines in South China Sea dispute with China, 123
• “pollute first, clean up later” slogan, 35, 126, 129, 166, 216
• Pollution Information Transparency Index, 149
• population growth in China, 15, 17, 19–20;
  • cheap labor force and, 32, 33, 119, 128
  • Mao Zedong’s program for, 24
  • urbanization and, 37
  • wastewater and, 39
• Porsche, 51
• poverty. see wealthy vs. poor
• Poyang Lake, 202
• privatization, 31
• Probe International study of seismic hazard (2012), 204
• protests. see environmental protests
• public health. see health effects
• public response to pollution, 137–164;
  • community participation in environmental assessments, 149–150, 164
  • dark humor as response, 150–152,
  • environmental protests, 40, 142–143, 152–158, , 214
  • extent of public awareness, 144–146, 214, 219
  • local threats of more immediate concern than national ones, 145–146
  • nuclear reactor construction, protests against, 211
  • priority of economy vs. environment, public opinion on, 144
  • self-protection as response, 146–148
  • social media and environmental awareness, 138–139, 148, 152–153, 157, 214, 219
  • sources of environmental information, 137–139
  • transparency demands, 12, 148–149
• public transportation, 39, 50, 71, 164, 171, 218
• PX plants, protests opposing, 154–158,

Q

• Qi Ye, 68
• Qianlong reign (1736–1796), 18
• Qingdao, 78–79
• Qinghai province, 196
• Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau, 198, 205, 220
• Qingshun Chemical Technology Company, 183
• QQ messenger service, 143
• Qu Geping, 17–18, 166;
  • Population and the Environment in China, 17
• quotas of key pollutants, 187

R

• rail lines, high-speed, 177
• rainforests, 4, 54, 220
• rare woods, 48
• recycling
  • of e-waste, 10–12, 112
  • education about, 164
  • industrial, 88
• reforestation, 169, 177
• religion and “three teachings,” 26–29, 217
• renewable energy. see clean energy
• Renren (blog), 138, 152
• reservoir-induced seismicity, 204
• reservoirs. see dams and reservoirs
• resettlement due to dam construction, 203
• The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (Elvin), 15
• Ricci, Matteo, 20
• river systems. see also dams and reservoirs; specific river names
  • historical background of control over, 17
  • river conservancy NGO International Rivers Organization, 163
  • water diversion of transboundary rivers, 122, 206
• rosewood, 48
• rural migration to cities. see migration caused by environmental factors; urbanization
• rural vs. urban dwellers, and health effects from pollution, 115–116
• Russia, water pollution from China in, 3, 36, 123

S

• saltwater intrusion, 86, 91
• Sanlu Group, 98
• schistosomiasis, 80, 91
• Science on plastic waste generated by China (2015), 122
• sea level rise, 219
• Seawater Utilization, Special Plan for, 173
• seismic hazard, 204–205, 210
• self-protection as public response, 146–148
• Senkaku/Diaoyutai Islands dispute between China and Japan, 123
• SEPA (State Environmental Protection Agency), 167, 177
• sewage treatment plants, 78, 177
• Shaanxi province, 106, 131
• Shakyamuni (Buddha), 26
• shale reserves, fracking of, 193–194
• Shandong province, 181, 183
• Shanghai
  • air pollution in, 61, 69, 111
  • auto licenses, limitation on, 170
  • Disney resort, 46
  • flood vulnerability of, 219–220
  • subsidence in, 86
  • urbanization, , 213
• Shanghai Husi Food Company, 99
• Shanghai–Jiading Expressway, 52
• Shanxi province, 131
• Shapiro, Judith, Mao’s War Against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China, 28
• Shenzhen
  • air pollution in, 69
  • auto licenses, limitation on, 170
• Shijiazhuang
  • air pollution in, 6, 61, 65, 111
  • water supply in, 90
• shipping, pollution effects of, 120, 128
• Sichuan Greenriver Environment Protection Promotion Association (NGO), 159
• Sichuan province, 91, 126, 150, 198
• Sina Weibo (blog), 64, 138, 140–142, 152
• Sino-Japanese War, First (1894–1895), 21
• Sino-Japanese War, Second (1937–1945), 21
• Sinopec oil spill (2013), 78–79
• skiing, 46, 48–49
• smart cities, 39, 218
• smart technology, 147
• smog. see air pollution
• “smog refugees”, 147–148
• snow production for ski resorts, 48–49
• social media and environmental awareness, 138–139, 148, 152–153, 157, 214, 219
• Society for Protecting Black-Beaked Gulls (NGO), 158
• soil erosion, 17–18, 39, 202
• soil pollution, 9–10, 25, 47, 93–96; see also fertilizer
  • action plan, 174–175
  • air pollution as cause of, 95–96
  • cost of cleaning up, 175
  • extent of, 93–94, 102, 214
  • health effects of, 107
  • nationwide survey on (2018), 175
  • public awareness of, 142
  • remediation techniques, development of, 175
  • sources of, 94–96
  • state programs to combat, 174–176
  • transparency about, 149
• solar energy, 190, 195, , 196–197, 201, 215; see also clean energy
• solar photovoltaic panels, manufacture of, 199
• solid waste. see also landfills
  • electronic waste, 10–12, 47, 112
  • plastic waste in world’s oceans, 122
  • urbanization and, 39
• Songhua River, 36, 123
• The South China Morning Post
  • on air filter system, 147
  • on organic food certification, 100
• South China Sea, China’s creation of islands in, 123, 209
• South Korea
  • environmental cooperation with neighboring countries, 124–125
  • pollution from China in, 121–122
  • Yellow Sea dispute with China, 123
• South-North Water Diversion Project, 23, 88–91, , 172–173
• Southern Weekly, 137
• soybean farming, 54
• Special Plan for Seawater Utilization, 173
• sports, 45–46
• sports car clubs, 51
• Stalley, Phillip, 235n3
• Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, 166, 167
• Starbucks, 99, 128
• State Council
  • Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan issued by, 167–168
  • Water Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan issued by, 171–172
  • “White Paper—The Grain Issue in China,” 100–101
• State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), 167, 177
• State Forestry Administration, 20, 182
• state response to pollution, 165–188;
  • air pollution action plan, 165, 167–171, 215
  • chronology of state actions, 166–167
  • five-year plan (2016–2020) for, 176–177
  • major environmental administrative entities, 177–179
  • recommendations for strengthening, 182–184
  • restructuring state ministries into a super-Ministry, 182
  • revised Environmental Protection Law (2015), effect of, 184–188
  • soil pollution action plan, 174–176
  • tension between local and national interests, 180–181
  • water pollution action plan, 165, 171–172, 173, 215
  • weakness of, 179–180, 182
• state secrets defense used to block disclosure of environmental information, 149
• Stern, Nicholas, 68
• subsidence, 86, 232n19
• subway systems. see public transportation
• sulfur dioxide
  • acid rain containing, 122
  • air pollution and, 60
  • automobile emissions and, 70, 170
  • coal combustion as source of, 67
  • cross-border pollution and, 122–123
  • manufacturing sector and, 34, 128
• sustainable development, 40, 215, 218
• Syngenta (Swiss company), 103
• synthetic natural gas (SNG), 191–193

T

• Taiping Rebellion, 18
• Taiwan
  • Chinese Nationalists in, 21
  • South China Sea dispute with China, 123
• taxis, 50, 71, 171
• television as source of environmental information, 137–138
• Tencent Weibo (blog), 138
• Teng Fei, 35, 67, 111
• textile industry, 108, 119–120, 172
• theme parks, 46, 48
• 13th Five-Year Plan. see Five-Year Plan 13th (2016–2020)
• Three Gorges Dam, 23, 26, 198, , 202–205
• Three Teachings, 26–29, 217
• Tianji Coal Chemical Industry Group toxic spill (2012), 78
• Tianjin
  • flood vulnerability of, 220
  • subsidence in, 86
  • Tianjin to Beijing canal, proposed construction of, 84, 89, 90
• timber. see also deforestation
  • imports, 221
• Toyota, 32, 33, 50, 119
• trade, 31, 32, 97–98; see also globalization; imports
  • China as leading exporter in world, 119
  • China-to-United States export trade, 129–130
  • shipping, effects on environment, 120, 128
  • in water rights, 173
• transboundary pollution, 3, 5, 121–122, 125, 128, 220–221
• transboundary rivers, 122, 206
• transparency about pollution issues, 12, 148–149, 186
• travel
  • domestic and international, 46–47, 49
  • for relief from air pollution, 147–148, 152
• tree-planting campaign (Great Green Wall of China), 19, 83
• Trina Solar, 199
• tube wells, need for, 85–86
• turbine manufacture, 199
• 12th Five-Year Plan. see also Five-Year Plan, 12th (2011–2015)

U

• Under the Dome (documentary), 144–145
• United Kingdom
  • British trade with China (1800s), 21
  • nuclear reactor construction in, with China’s assistance, 209
  • renewable energy, investment in, 195–196
• United Nations
  • on “absolute scarcity” of water, 81
  • Conference on Human Environment (Stockholm 1972), 166
  • Development Programme (UNDP), 69, 70
  • Intended Nationally Determined Contributions submitted to, 168
  • on “water-stressed” regions, 8
  • World Tourism Organization, 47
• United States
  • air pollution in, 3, 6, 6
  • auto market in, 24
  • Bakersfield, California, most polluted city in, 6
  • bottled water consumption in, 114
  • China’s pollution, effect in, 3, 125–127
  • corporations paying bonuses/hazard pay to get employees to work in China, 7, 127
  • farmland available in, 10, 93
  • fracking in, 193
  • freshwater resources in, 8
  • GDP in, 225n1
  • Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam, 198
  • meat consumption in, 53, 53
  • nuclear energy in, 207
  • renewable energy, investment in, 195
  • role in creating China’s pollution, 128–131
• urban sprawl, 39, 47, 50, 218
• urbanization
  • air pollution and, 39, 115, 218
  • challenges of, 218
  • drinking water sources and, 85
  • economic development and, 37–39
  • hukou system to limit rural to urban migration, 115–116
  • meat consumption and, 53
  • of Shanghai,

V

• @VegetableVillageSword, 142
• Vietnam
  • coal imported from, 132
  • Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology, and Climate Change, 122–123
  • pollution from China in, 121, 122
  • South China Sea, dispute with China over, 123
• violence
  • land competition and, 18
  • water access and, 84
• Volkswagen, 49, 51
• Volvo, 113

W

• Wall Street Journal on indoor air quality, 103
• Wang Chunsheng, 142
• Wang Yi’nan, 210
• “war on pollution” (declared 2014), 41, 109, 165, 167, 215
• The Warriors of Qiugang: A Village Fights Back (documentary), 160
• wastewater discharge, 36, 39, 91, 108, 156, 218
• wastewater treatment plants, 39, 78, 89–90, 172
• watchdog journalism, 137
• Water Cube, 22
• water diversion, 88
• water pollution, 7–9, 75–81; see also wastewater discharge; wastewater treatment plants
  • action plan, 165, 171–172, 173, 215
  • from agricultural runoff, 19, 76–78, 94, 122
  • boiling drinking water, 113
  • bottled water in response to, 113–114, 147
  • consequences of, 79–81
  • drinking water safety and quality, 110, 172, 178–179, 214
  • environmental court and, 178–179
  • extent of, 76
  • fecal waste from livestock and, 54, 77–78
  • fish and, 80–81, 121
  • health effects of, 36, 79–80, 91, 106–107
  • from incineration plants, 47
  • industrial accidents causing, 36, 78–79
  • industrialization and, 36, 76, , 87–88, 94–95, 108–109, 119, 172
  • as priority, in public concerns, 144
  • rating water quality (five grades), 75, 214–215
  • from recycling e-waste, 11
  • in rural vs. urban areas, 115–116
  • sources of, 75–79
  • transboundary, 122
  • water-filtering systems in homes, 113
  • Water Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (2015, called Water Ten Plan), 171–172, 173
• water scarcity, 7–8, 79–91, 172–173;
  • bottled water and, 114
  • causes of, 35–36, 79, 84–86
  • climate change and, 83, 88
  • cloud Seeding to produce rain, 174
  • coal industry and, 35
  • comparison with other countries, 88
  • desalination and, 173–174
  • extent of, 81–82, 82 , 172
  • “First National Census of Water” (2013) and, 87, 138
  • fracking and, 194
  • golf courses and, 48
  • increase in water use and, 85
  • industrialization and, 35–36
  • measures to alleviate, 84
  • nuclear energy and, 210
  • population growth and, 20
  • pricing of water, 173
  • rivers drying up and, 86–88
  • saltwater intrusion and, 86, 91
  • snow production for ski resorts and, 48–49
  • South-North Water Diversion Project and, 23, 89–92, , 172–173
  • subsidence and, 86
  • trade in water rights, 173
  • tube wells, need for, 85–86
  • water footprint of food production, 54–55
• wealthy vs. poor
  • health effects of pollution and, 116
  • self-protective measures against pollution and, 148
• WeChat (text-messaging service), 139, 152
• Weibo (social media), 61, 66, 141, 143, 151; see also Sina Weibo
• Wenchuan earthquake (2008), 204
• wetlands, 24, 38, 77, 87
• whistleblower protections, 186
• WHO (World Health Organization), 5, 59, 63, 65, 111
• Whole Foods, 98
• wildlife habitat. see also biodiversity
  • disruption of, 17–18
  • protection of, 158
• wind power, 190, 195–197, 201, 215; see also clean energy
• Wong, Edward, 89
• World Bank
  • on China’s self-sufficiency principle, 103
  • on Chinese environmental laws, 179
  • on cost of environmental pollution in China, 37
  • on drinking water quality in China, 79
  • on drought’s effect on hydropower, 244n17
  • on freshwater resources in China, 8
  • on industrial recycling of water in China, 88
  • on well water, 85
• World Health Organization (WHO), 5, 59, 63, 65, 111
• World Trade Organization (WTO), 32, 119, 131, 225n2
• World Wide Fund for Nature, 163
• Wu Yixu, 109
• Wuhan, 38, 91, 140

X

• Xi Jinping, 40, 46, 72, 171, 201, 214
• Xia dynasty (ca. 2000 BCE), 17
• Xiamen
  • chemical plant to be located in, 142
  • Green Cross Association, 159
  • protest (2007), 154, 157
• “Xiamen effect,” 154–155
• Xiamen Green Cross Association (NGO), 159
• “xian wuran hou zhili” slogan. see “pollute first, clean up later” slogan
• Xie Zhenhua, 124
• Xingtai, air pollution in, 6
• Xinhua, 137;
  • 2001 report on Hai River shrinkage, 87
  • 2017 report on car emissions, 49
• Xue Manzi, 141

Y

• Yang Chaofei, 152
• Yangtze River. see also South-North Water Diversion Project; Three Gorges Dam
  • acid rain and, 9
  • cancer villages near, 107
  • drought and, 88
  • endangered or extinct fish in, 81
  • flooding and, 23
  • glacier runoff as source of, 83, 220
  • hydropower plants on, 205
  • petrochemical factories and, 78
  • pollution in, 142, 172
  • sediment lost due to Three Gorges Dam, 202
  • water quality in, 8
• Yangtze River Delta, 168
• Yarlung Zangbo River, 205, 206, 221
• Yellow River. see also South-North Water Diversion Project
  • cancer villages near, 107
  • climate change and, 88
  • drought and, 83, 86–87
  • flooding, 17
  • glacier runoff as source of, 83, 220
  • petrochemical factories and, 78
  • pollution in, 172
  • water quality in, 8
• Yellow Sea, 121, 123
• Yiwu village as production center of Christmas decorations, 33–34
• Yu (sage-king), 17
• Yunnan province, 106, 114, 197, 204

Z

• Zhang Changjian, 93–94
• Zhang Junfeng, 112
• Zhang River, 83–84
• Zhangjiakou, 126
• Zhao Bin, 43–44
• Zhao Bin, “Consumerism, Confucianism, Communism: Making Sense of China Today,” 43–44
• Zhao Cihang, 51
• Zheng Yuanjie, 141
• Zhou dynasty (1045 bc?–221 bc), 15–16
• Zhou Enlai, 166
• Zhou Shengxian, 241n12
• Zhu Chao, 51
• Zhuang Guotai, 174
• Zhuozhang River, 78
• zinc, 11, 95, 96
• Zipingpu Dam, 204